The perfection of morality is stated in terms of what came to be known as the three categories of pure precepts to be followed by bodhisattvas (to give up what is evil, to do what is good, and to benefit all beings) and the ten courses of wholesome conduct that carried over into Buddhism from Brahmanism (though in this case abstention from intoxicants replaces abstention from abusive speech). Again, all of this is done without any attachment or aversion.

The perfection of generosity … consists in the teaching of the
Dharma, the giving of material goods (including even one’s own body and life), and even the giving of fearlessness. All of this, however, is done without any thought of clinging, or self-congratulation, or expectation of return. It is done with the insight that there is ultimately no giver, no gift, and no receiver.

[W]hereas the Hinayāna sūtras and schools do not recognize that sentient beings universally possess the nature of buddhahood, the Flower Garland Sūtra states that right after his awakening the Buddha saw that all beings are capable of being buddhas also but do not realize it.

Then the Buddha, with the unimpeded, pure, clear eye of knowledge, observes all sentient beings in the cosmos and says, “How strange — how is it that these sentient beings have the knowledge of the Buddha but in their folly and confusion do not know it or perceive it? I should teach them the way of sages and cause them forever to shed deluded notions and attachments, so they can see in their own bodies the vast knowledge of buddhas, no different than the buddhas. (Cleary 1993, p. 1003)

In the Nirvāṇa Sūtra, just before his final nirvāṇa the Buddha teaches that the essential nature of the Buddha is unborn and deathless and that all beings are endowed with this same buddha-nature.

“This is to say that the Tathagata is eternal and unchanging, that he is utmost peace itself, and that all beings have the Buddha Nature. ” (Yamamoto, Kosho, p. 143)

Though the buddha-nature of all sentient beings is asserted, the Buddha stated in the passage from the Flower Garland Sūtra that sentient beings are ignorant of this and would need to be taught. In the Nirvāṇa Sūtra, Kāśyapa Bodhisattva points out:

“There surely is the Buddha Nature. But having not yet practiced the best expediency of the Way, he has not yet seen it. Having not seen it, there can be no attainment of the unsurpassed bodhi. ” (Ibid, p. 169)

Having buddha-nature, then, is one thing, but actually arousing the aspiration to attain buddhahood and making efforts to realize and actualize buddha nature is something else again. This aspiration and determination to dedicate all their efforts to attaining buddhahood for the sake of all beings is what differentiates a bodhisattva from the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas of the two vehicles.

[B]eginning in the 1st century BCE a class of sūtras known as Mahāyāna or “Great Vehicle” began to appear that spoke of the bodhisattva vehicle. Those who eschewed the two vehicles of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas as spiritually selfish took up the bodhisattva vehicle instead, aspiring to attain buddhahood for the sake of all sentient beings. These sūtras extolled this as the superior path. The earlier sūtras only take into account one buddha, the historical Śākyamuni Buddha of this world, and only one bodhisattva, his successor Maitreya Bodhisattva. They only deal with this era wherein the teaching of the Buddha Dharma is still extant. Most importantly, they only teach the way to attain arhatship or pratyekabuddhahood, both of which see liberation as the irrevocable abandonment of the six lower realms and the beings still transmigrating within them. Mahāyāna sūtras, however, have a grander scope that takes in the whole universe and unimaginably vast scales of time wherein there are countless buddhas inhabiting pure lands throughout the universe (the ten directions) with bodhisattva attendants who voluntarily take birth even in this Sahā world (the world of Endurance) in order to help liberate all beings and accumulate the merit and insight they would need to attain buddhahood and establish their own pure lands. According to the Mahāyāna sūtras, it is indeed possible to accomplish the greatest and most selfless goal of buddhahood itself.

Dependent origination is the Middle Way between the extremes of existence and non-existence. The view of existence, or “eternalism,” imagines that fixed entities, independent of conditions and immune from change, can be found underlying the phenomena that do change. The view of non-existence, or “annihilationism,” imagines there is no continuity at all within change and the entities that do arise will eventually vanish completely without a trace. Dependent origination is the Middle Way which cuts through those views by pointing out the ceaseless interplay of causes and conditions, which is the process of becoming, rather than the eternalism of being or the nihilism of non-being. The Middle Way points out that while there are no fixed entities there is a flow of continuity within the process of change. In the following sermon, the Buddha expounds the teaching of the Middle Way to Kātyāyana:

“This world, Kātyāyana, for the most part depends upon a duality – upon the idea of existence and the idea of nonexistence. But for one who sees the origin of the world as it really is with correct wisdom, there is no idea of nonexistence in regard to the world. And for one who sees the cessation of the world as it really is with correct wisdom, there is no idea of existence in regard to the world.

‘This world, Kātyāyana, is for the most part shackled by engagement, clinging, and adherence. But this one [with right view] does not become engaged and cling through that engagement and clinging, mental standpoint, adherence, underlying tendency; he does not take a stand about ‘my self.’ He has no perplexity or doubt that what arises is only suffering arising, what ceases is only suffering ceasing. His knowledge about this is independent of others. It is in this way, Kātyāyana, that there is right view.

” ‘All exists’: Kātyāyana, this is one extreme. ‘All does not exist’: this is the second extreme. Without veering towards either of these extremes, the Tathāgata teaches the Dharma by the middle.” (Bodhi 2005, p.356-357)

Put simply, dependent origination means that all phenomena arise as the result of conditions and cease when those conditions change. The Buddha taught the general theory of dependent origination as follows: “When this exists, that comes to be; with the arising of this, that arises. When this does not exist, that does not come to be; with the cessation of this, that ceases.” (Bodhi 2000, p. 575) So there-are-no static isolated entities in existence. Everything arises and ceases depending on causes and conditions that arise due to yet other causes and conditions. There is no ultimate ground or primordial cause, but a network of causes and conditions. This undercuts the view of a metaphysical selfhood, fixed entity, or substance underlying the constant change that is life.

The noble eightfold path has also been restated as the threefold training, consisting of morality, concentration, and wisdom. Morality pertains to the ethical demands of right speech, right action and right livelihood. Specifically, the practice of morality can refer to the five precepts taken by laypeople, the ten virtuous precepts (i.e. the ten good acts), the ten precepts for novices, or even the full monastic precepts taken by monks and nuns. Concentration refers to the cultivation of the mind covered by right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration. Wisdom refers to the acquisition of right view and right intention. The Buddha taught that when morality, concentration, and wisdom are cultivated together, one is able to shake loose the bonds of craving and ignorance and attain the liberation of nirvāṇa.

More specifically, the practice of the eightfold path or the threefold training leads to four fruitions of the holy life. These four fruitions are referred to as “paths” when one first enters such a state and “fruits” when one realizes the benefits from the path attained. Specifically, the benefits of the four fruitions refers to our progressive liberation from ten fetters which keep us trapped in the ordinary life of birth and death and all the suffering, fear and anxiety which makes up that life.

So how does one live the Middle Way in order to put an end to craving? The fourth noble truth is an outline of the noble eightfold path:

“Now this, monks, is the noble truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering: it is this noble eightfold path; that is, right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration.”

As already stated, following the noble eightfold path is to live in accordance with the Middle Way. Basically, they are the eight aspects of a life free of self-interest or craving. In each case, “right” refers to the ability to live in a perfect or complete way, so that self-centeredness is extinguished, and one lives in accordance with reality in thought, word and deed.