A discussion of the two truths controversy and Mādhyamika philosophy in China properly begins with Kumārajīva, surely one of the greatest translators and transmitters of a religious tradition at any time or place. Kumārajīva (344-413) was born in Serindia and left lay life at the age of seven. He first studied Hinayāna, mostly Sarvāstivādin, philosophy and other non-Buddhist subjects, but later converted to Mahāyāna and studied the Śūnyavāda tradition. He settled in Kucha where he established his reputation. When a Chinese army conquered Kucha in 383 Kumārajīva was taken captive and brought back to Liang-chou in northwestern China where, it is assumed, he learned Chinese. In 401 the Liang were conquered by the Later Ch’in, who welcomed Kumārajīva to their capital in Ch’ang-an. Here Kumārajīva received the support needed to complete his voluminous and superb translations.

Not only did Kumārajīva introduce and establish Mādhyamika philosophy in China, but also his translations became the authoritative texts for much of later Chinese and Japanese Buddhism. They provided Chih-i with the authoritative texts on which he based his philosophy and practice. Particularly important for Tien-t’ai philosophy are Kumārajīva’s translations of the Lotus Sūtra (T. 9, No. 262), the Pañcaviṃśati-sāhasrikā-prajn͂āpāramitā Sūtra [Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines] (T. 8, No. 223), the Ta Chih tu lun [Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom] (T. 25, No. 1509), the Mūlamadhyamakakārika [Fundamentals of the Middle Way] (T. 30, No. 1564), the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa Sūtra [Vimalakīrti Sūtra] (T. 14, No. 475), Vajracchedikā Sūtra [The Diamond Sūtra] (T. 8, No. 235), and the Ch’eng shih lun (Satyasiddhi Śāstra?) [True Attainment Treatise] (T. 32, No. 1646).

As we shall see later, Chih-i’s philosophy often relies to a great extent on the wording of Kumārajīva’s translations.