Next I will discuss the ten dharmas of the realms of men and gods. These are different from the four evil destinies only in that one can recognize goodness and pleasure. Their “appearance” is pure and superior. Their “nature” is good. Their “essence” is a peaceful body and mind. Their “power” is the potential capability to do good. Their “activity” is to perform good deeds and abstain from evil deeds. Their “causes” are good deeds. Their “conditions” are good [but they still have mistaken views concerning] self and possessions. Their “results” are the spontaneous arising of the results of a good mind. Their “retribution” is the experience of pleasures which are natural [to men and gods]. “Sameness” is as explained above.

[B]y arranging together those [dharma realms] of like characteristics, we have four categories. The four [evil] destinies [of hell, preta, beasts, and asura]; men and gods; śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas; and bodhisattvas and Buddhas.

First I will clarify the ten suchlike characteristics of the four evil destinies.

1. “Suchlike appearance” refers to their evil appearances which are made manifest by their falling into a state which is not desirable [such as falling into a hellish state]. It is analogous to a man who has not yet met disaster but he already shows maladious signs. A soothsayer, upon examination, can predict his ill fortune. If these evil appearances arise, it is clear that he will fall into hell in the future. Common men cannot recognize [these signs], but those of the two vehicles can recognize them slightly, bodhisattvas recognize them but not profoundly, and Buddhas recognize them exhaustively. It is like a skillful fortuneteller who has penetrating insight into the beginning and end [of all things]. Therefore it is called “such-like appearances.”
2. “Suchlike nature“: [these beings in the four evil destinies] have an intrinsic nature which is “black.” They are so accustomed to “black evil” [deeds] that it is difficult for them to change. It is like wood: when it comes into contact with fire, in the right conditions it will burn [and turn black]. The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra says, “Since the dharmas of passions have the nature of arising, therefore it is possible for them to arise.”¹⁷¹ These evil beings have the propensity [“nature”] to be born in these four destinies. Therefore if the conditions are such, they are born [in these four evil destinies]. Even if a clay or wooden image has the outer appearance [of something], it lacks the inner nature [of that which it represents] so it is not able to arouse birth. The nature of evil beings is not like this.¹⁷² Therefore it is called “suchlike nature.”
3. “Suchlike essence“: [these beings in the four evil destinies] are attached to evil forms and mentalities¹⁷³ which have been pounded and hacked to dust. This is their essential quality. Also, first in this life they abuse their minds, and in the next life their material body is abused. Also, the results and retributions from this world in which the mind and body is abused is such that in the next world the results and retributions will consist of the abuse of mind and body. Therefore the abuse of body and mind is the essence [of those in the four evil destinies].
4. “Suchlike power” refers to evil potentialities. It is like a broken object which, though it is not useful [for what it what meant to do], first becomes useful when it fulfills another purpose.¹⁷⁴ The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra says, “In building a house one utilizes wood, not silk threads. In making cloth one utilizes silk threads, not clay and wood.”¹⁷⁵ Hellish beings have the potential to tread the edge of a blade,¹⁷⁶ preta have the potential to swallow copper and to chew steel [in their attempt to satisfy their unlimited hunger], beasts [have the potential of] the strong overcoming the weak – fish eat other fish, and [other animals] pull carts or other heavy objects. These are all evil [or unpleasant] powers and potentialities.
5. “Suchlike activity“: to make conceptual constructions, perform daily routines, and in general perform verbal, physical, and mental actions is to establish all sorts of evil [deeds, causes, and results]. This is called “activity.” The eighth section of the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra says, “It is like one who indulges in evil deeds in the world is called only half a person.”¹⁷⁷ Thus to indulge in evil deeds is called the activity of hellish beings.
6. “Suchlike causes“: these are the repetitive causes of evil. These give rise to [evil results] of an identical type [as the cause], which habitually continue and are not severed. Since they arise habitually it is easy to [continue to] do evil. Therefore these are called “suchlike causes.”
7. “Suchlike conditions” are auxiliary causes, such as [the erroneous belief in] the self and possessions, which contributes to the maturation of repetitive karma. It is like water which can moisten the seed [and cause a plant to grow]. Therefore that which functions as the cause of a retribution is called “conditions.”
8. “Suchlike results” refer to repetitive results. It is like a man who is full of desires and experiences a hellish body. He sees instruments of suffering but [mis]takes them to be desirable objects, and thus passionate attachments are increased further. This is called “repetitive results.”
9. “Suchlike retributions” are the retributive results. It is like a man who is full of desire is in a hellish state, and when he approaches the objects of his desires he experiences the sufferings of the copper pillars and steel beds. Therefore this is called “suchlike retributions.”
10. “The beginning and end both the same” has three meanings.¹⁷⁸ First, since both the beginning and end are empty [of substantial Being], they are called “the same.” Second, the evil results and retributions already exist within the initial appearances and nature [and so forth of sentient beings]. Therefore the beginning [appearances and natures] and end [results and retributions] are “the same.” If the later states are not [contained in] the initial [appearances and causes], then the soothsayer would not be able to predict [the future]. If the later [results and activities occur] apart from the initial state, the soothsayer would not be able to continue his predictions. One should know that the beginning and end exist as mutually interdependent, and that these conventional states are thus called “the same.” Third, the mind [which understands] the true aspects of reality¹⁷⁹ is not different from Buddhahood; there is not one visible form nor one scent which is not a part of the middle way. From this point of view of the principle of reality, [beginning and end] are called “the same.” Due to these [three] meanings it is said that “the beginning and the end are the same.” These three meanings are also contained in each other. Therefore they are “the same.”

171

See Yamamoto II, 514. This passage follows a long section which discusses the meaning of arising and non-arising which Chih-i examines in more detail in his section of the Four Noble Truths. The immediate context reads: “O good man! The dharmas of outflow (of passions, sāsrava-dharma), at the time when they have not yet arisen, already have the nature of arising. Therefore they are able to arise. The dharmas of no outflow (of passions, anāsrava-dharma) fundamentally have no nature of arising. Therefore they are not able to arise.” In other words, it is in the inherent nature of passions to arise and perish, but the lack of any passions has no “existence” and thus it makes no sense to talk of it as “arising” or “perishing.” return

172

That is, unlike a clay or wooden image, they do have the nature which leads to birth in an evil destiny. return

173

Body and mind, rūpa-citta. return

174

This phrase is very vague in the original. It refers to the various unpleasant and undesirable “abilities” of those in the four destinies, which are a deviant and abusive utilization of abilities which should be used to help others and gain enlightenment. return

175

This is a paraphrase of the original which reads: “It is like when Devadatta wishes to make a wall he takes up mud and not colors; when he wishes to make a painting he gathers colors and does not take up grass and wood; in making a robe he takes up threads and does not take up mud and wood; in making a house he takes up mud and not threads. One can know the result of what one is able to make from what one takes up.” return

176

This refers to the pursuit of satisfying one’s desires whatever the cost. For example, people abuse their bodies and minds in a futile attempt to satisfy their appetites. return

177

Yamamoto I, 206-207. This passage is in the chapter “On Letters” in which each of the Sanskrit letters is given a doctrinal interpretation. At the beginning of the chapter it is explained that the letters of the alphabet themselves are “half-words” and though these form the basic foundation for all verbal communication, it is only when they are put together to form words, called “complete words,” that meaning and communication is possible. The passage in the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra says, “The meaning of ‘halfwords’ is the foundation for verbalizing all good dharmas. Therefore they are called ‘half-words.’ ‘Complete words’ refers to the foundation of verbalizing all good dharmas. It is like one who does evil deeds in the world is called half a person, and one who cultivated good practice is called a complete person.” In T’ien-t’ai doctrine, the Hinayāna teachings are called “the teachings of half-words.” return

178

Corresponding to the threefold truth. return

179

Lit., “middle-real-principle of reality-mind.” This refers either to reality itself or to the mind which understands the true aspects of reality as the middle, i.e., simultaneously empty of substantial Being yet conventionally existent. return

General explanation [of the ten suchlike characteristics]: Appearance has its point of reference externally. What can be distinguished by being seen is called “appearance.” Nature has its point of reference internally. That which intrinsically belongs to one’s self and does not change is called “nature.” That which is the central quality [of something] is called “essence.” The ability to influence is called “power.” That which constructs is called “activity.” “Repetitive causes”¹⁶⁶ are called “causes.” “Auxiliary causes”¹⁶⁷ are called “conditions.” “Repetitive results”¹⁶⁸ are called “results.” Retributive effects are called “retribution.” The initial “appearance” is called the “beginning,” the ninth “retribution” is called the “end,” and the place to which they belong¹⁶⁹ is ultimately the same.”

If one were to emphasize the suchness [of these ten characteristics], then “sameness” refers to the fact that they, from beginning to end, are all empty [of substantial Being]. If one were to emphasize their appearance and nature and so forth, “sameness” means that from beginning to end they do exist interdependently. If one emphasizes the meaning of the middle [their simultaneous emptiness and conventional existence], then “sameness” means that from beginning to end they are all the true aspects of reality.

Here we do not rely on these [distinct meanings of] sameness. Here “ultimately the same” means that all three dharmas¹⁷⁰ are integrated with each other. The term “ultimately” refers to middle; that is, to the “sameness” of all true aspects of reality.

166

A cause which brings about a result similar to the cause, such as thoughts causing more good thoughts. return

167

Indirect or conditional causes. return

168

A result which is the same as its cause, such as an evil thought resulting in more evil thoughts. return

169

Lit. the place to which they return and the place to which they tend, that is, the integration of all in the reality of the ten dharma realms. return

170

It is not clear whether this refers to the three dharmas of sentient beings, Buddha, and the mind, or to the three truths of emptiness, conventional existence, and the middle. The thrust of Chih-i’s explanation is the same in either case. return

It should be known that the dharmas of sentient beings are beyond conceptual understanding. They are real yet tentative; tentative yet real. Their real and tentative aspects are mutually non-obstructing. It is not possible to perceive [the true reality of] sentient beings with the eyes of a bull or sheep. It is not possible to measure [the true reality of] sentient beings with the mind of an ignorant man. Wisdom like that of the Buddha is able to measure it. Why is this so? Because the dharma of sentient beings is subtle.

Question: Why do you discuss [the concept of] no-truth in both Hinayāna and Mahāyāna?

Answer: The Ta chih tu lun [Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom] says, “I am not criticizing the nirvāṇa attained in the mind of the sage, but the attachment to nirvāṇa among those who have not yet attained [enlightenment] which gives rise to vain speculation [prapañca].”⁶²² It is like arousing attachments when coming in contact with [the concept of] non-Being [and mistaking it for nothingness]. Therefore one destroys [the notion of one truth] by saying “no-truth.”

Question: If this is so, then one should criticize both the attainment and non-attainment of the Hinayānist, and one should criticize both the attainment and non-attainment of the Mahāyānist.

Answer: This is not the case. Those of the Hinayāna have distinct delusions which should be removed and a distinct reality which they should manifest. Therefore though it is said that they have attainment, this should be criticized. The Middle Path is not like this. Why then should its attainment be criticized?

Question: If so, then the Middle Path alone should be the one real truth, and should not be called “no-truth.”

Answer: It is necessary to say “no-truth” for the sake of those who have not fulfilled attainment, and in their attachments give rise to delusion. For those who have real attainment, there is [a positive truth]; for those [lost] in vain speculation, there is none.⁶²³

622

The Shakusen kōgi refers to the Ta chih tu lun, fascicle 1.12, but the closest passage I could find in this section were the verses on prapañca, which read in part, “If one relies on one’s own mistaken views, one will give rise to all sorts of vain speculations.” These are verses which illustrate the fourth siddhānta. return

623

The section on the subtlety of objects continues for a couple of pages in a section titled “Exposing the Harmony of All Objects.” Here Chih-i discusses the relationship between all of the above subjects, such as which parts of twelvefold conditioned co-arising correspond to which parts of the ten such-likes, and so forth. This illustrates the integrated nature, or interrelatedness, of all these aspects of objective reality, thus manifesting Chih-i’s basic theme of variety within a single reality. This is the last part of the section on subtle objects, but it is not included in my translation because of its length and repetitiveness. Chih-i’s point is already clear. return

To say that “all truth cannot be explained” means that all dharmas are inherently, naturally, and eternally quiescent. How can reality [”all truth”] be in disorder and obstructed?⁶¹⁹ The one truth is [actually] no [truth]; all truth is at rest. Each and every [truth] is [ultimately] inexpressible.

To not explain it is crude; [for truth itself] to be inexpressible is subtle. For the inexpressibility [of the truth] to be inexpressible is subtle. This subtlety is also subtle, because this is the limit of verbal expression. If one consistently applies this inexpressibility, then the arising of arising is inexpressible, and the non-arising of non-arising is inexpressible.⁶²⁰ The first inexpressibility is crude; the inexpressibility of the non-arising of non-arising is subtle. If the crude is different from the subtle, this is relative and not integrated. The crude and subtle are non-dual; this is the absolute subtlety.⁶²¹

With regard to the teachings of five flavors, the milk teaching is one part crude no-truth, and one part subtle no-truth. The cream teaching is one part crude no-truth. The curds teaching is three parts crude no-truth, and one part subtle no-truth. The butter teaching is two parts crude no-truth, and one part subtle no-truth. This Lotus Sūtra is only the one subtle no-truth.

619

It cannot, since reality is one. return

620

This refers to the section in the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, which illustrates the inexpressibility of emptiness by arguing that one cannot accurately explain with words the arising or non-arising of anything. The section says in part, “Good sons. The non-arising of arising is inexpressible. The arising of arising is inexpressible. The arising of non-arising is also inexpressible. The non-arising of non-arising is also inexpressible. Arising is also inexpressible. Non-arising is also inexpressible.” return

621

In this section Chih-i is again straining to verbally explain that which, as he takes pains to point out, is inherently inexpressible. Truth or reality, with whatever terms one wishes to utilize, is beyond adequate verbal expression. Even the term “one truth,” though more accurate than most to the ultimate “state” of reality, must denied and called “no truth” if one becomes attached to the term “truth.” The same applies in turn for the term “no truth” or whatever verbal expression one uses. return

The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra says that that which is called the two truths is in reality one truth. It is called two as an expedient means.⁶¹⁰ It is like a drunk man who has not yet vomited [and regained his sobriety] sees the sun and moon spinning around and says that there is a sun which is spinning around and a sun which is not spinning around.⁶¹¹ A sober person perceives only that which is not spinning and does not see the spinning. To say there are two [modes of] spinning is crude; the lack of spinning is subtle.⁶¹² Those of the Tripiṭaka all belong to the duality of spinning, like a drunk person. All Mahāyāna Sūtras include the two [modes of] spinning and explain the one [truth] of the lack of spinning. This Lotus Sūtra “directly rejects expedient means and only expounds the supreme way.” The lack of spinning is the one reality, therefore it is subtle.

610

See the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra. The original text reads, ” ‘Good sons, the worldly truth is identical with the truth of ‘supreme meaning.’ ‘World Honored One. If this is so, then there are not two truths.’ The Buddha said, ‘Good sons, these are good expedient means in accordance with [the capacities of] sentient beings to explain that there are two truths. Good sons, if one follows verbal conventions, then there are two types. First, the worldly dharma, and second, the transworldly dharma. Good sons, that which is known by transworldly people is called the truth of supreme meaning. That which is known by worldly people is called the worldly truth’.” return

611

This analogy is from the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, where the disciples are grieving over the imminent death of the Buddha. “We have met the Tathāgata but are diseased and not yet cured, and have not yet attained supreme peace and eternal bliss. Why does the Tathāgata wish to abandon us and enter nirvāṇa? World Honored One, we are like a drunk person who is not aware of his situation, does not recognize his relatives—his mother or sisters, deluded with lust and rough speech, and sleeps in unsanitary places. At that time a good physician gives him some medicine. After taking it he vomits but regains his memory and sobriety, and he feels repentant and deeply remorseful. He thinks alcoholic drink is not good and the root of all evil. … We are also like this. From the past we have been transmigrating in the cycle of life and death drunk with sensual pleasures and coveting the five desirous things. … Like a drunk man we sleep in impure places. Tathāgata! Now give us the Dharma medicine so that we can vomit out the evil liquors of passions. We have not yet attained a sober mind. How can you abandon us and enter nirvāṇa?” Later in the same section it says, “It is like a drunk man whose mind is confused, and he perceives all the mountains, rivers, castles, palaces, sun, moon, and stars spinning around. Sentient beings are like this drunk man who perceives the sun and moon, which are not really spinning around, as spinning around. They have an inverted mind which is full of passions and ignorance, which takes as a self that which has no self, takes as eternal that which is transient, takes as pure that which is impure, and takes as blissful that which consists of suffering.” return

612

In other words, the perception of the sun as spinning is a mistaken perception based on the drunken state of the perceiver. In fact, the sun and moon and mountains are not spinning. return

[T]he clarification of the threefold truth. Many Sūtras contain the meaning [of the threefold truth] in detail, but the terms come from the Ying lo ching and the Jên wang ching, i.e., the truth of existence, the truth of non-Being, and the supreme truth of the Middle Way. This [Lotus Sūtra] also contains this meaning. [The chapter on] the life-span [of the Tathāgata] says, “neither like nor different.”⁶⁰⁵ This refers to the Middle Way. “Alike” refers to the real [truth] and “different” to the mundane [truth].

605

See the Lotus Sūtra. The context reads (Hurvitz, Lotus Sūtra, 239): “The Thus Come One in full accord with Reality knows and sees the marks of the triple sphere. There is no birth-and-death, whether withdrawal from or emergence into the world, nor is there any being in the world nor anyone who passes into extinction. (The triple sphere) is neither Reality nor vanity, neither likeness nor difference.” return

There are immeasurable doctrines, with vast and far-reaching meaning. Further, they are mutually interrelated, from the shallow to the profound, some apparent and some hidden. The horizontal [identities] are all included and the vertical [grades of teaching and practice] are culminated. They are all consummated in the Lotus Sūtra. The Buddhas of old, the twenty-thousand [named Sun and Moon] Glow,⁵⁹⁴ Kasyapa, and so forth, constructed teachings, and the subtle was here culminated.

594

Candrasūryapradīpa. In the introductory chapter of the Lotus Sūtra it is said that these Buddhas, all with the same name, preached the Sūtra of Immeasurable Meanings as an introduction to the Lotus Sūtra. return

All teachings, whether they contain three flavors or two flavors or one flavor or arouse all [flavors], resolve the crude and lead to the subtle; all enter the Lotus Throne. In the Tripiṭaka [Teaching] the result is preserved,⁵⁹¹ that which is difficult to destroy is destroyed, that which is difficult to expose is exposed. How can it be said that it is easy to destroy and easy to expose? It is an entrance to the Lotus Throne which is completely in accordance with the feelings [of sentient beings], relies on the basis, and manifests the real [truth] of this doctrine.

The text [of the Lotus Sūtra] says, “The seven-jeweled great vehicles, whose number was immeasurable, was presented to each of all the sons.”⁵⁹² This refers to exposing the conventional and manifesting the real. All of the crude [teachings] are [ultimately] subtle, the absolute subtlety.

If it is as I have explained above, the Lotus Sūtra embraces all the Sūtras, and phenomenal reality is ultimately explained here. This is the original intention of the Buddha in appearing in this world, the significance of all dharma-teachings.

591

The Shakusen kōgi interprets this phrase as referring to the attachment to the fruit of arhatship and the resulting severance of the intent to attain Buddhahood. return

592

This quote is from the parable of the burning house. Hurvitz, Lotus Sūtra, 60, translates, “I have carriages such as these, made of the seven jewels, in incalculable numbers. I must give one to each of them with undiscriminating thought.” return