[T]he four evil destinies manifest only evil [pain] and are not able to manifest any good [pleasure]. The appearance of men and gods manifests goodness [pleasure] and does not manifest evil [pain]. Those of the two vehicles manifest only undefilement, and do not manifest [deluded] pleasure or pain. The appearance of the Buddhas contains and manifests all appearances. If one understands of appearance of the Buddha, one would completely understand all appearances. Therefore the suchness of the Buddha is most supreme.

Therefore it is written in the Hsien shêng chi²²⁶ that “those dwelling in hell can perceive only hell and cannot know about the other superior destinies. Those who dwell in heaven know both heaven and the other inferior destinies and their characteristics, but are not called ones with correct universal knowledge”²²⁷

226

The identity of this text is not known, but it is believed to be an Abhidharma text. In the Fa hua hsüan i shih ch’ien [Annotations on “The Profound Meaning of the Lotus Sūtra] Chan-jan says that the content is the same as the AbhidharmakoSabhäsya, but this may be referring merely to this one passage. The Shakusen kögi makes reference to both the “old” translation of the AbhidhamakoSabhäya by Paramärtha and the “new” translation by Hsüan-tsang, but obviously Chih-i could not have seen Hsüan-tsang’s translation. (see Bukkyö taikei I: 605—606) The following quote is similar in content to a passage in Paramärtha’s translation of the Abhidharmakośabhāṣya. return

227

Samyaksaṃbuddha. The Taishō text has (“named”), but the Bukkyō taikei edition uses the character (“clarify, perceive”), which would change this phrase to mean “they do not perceive correct universal wisdom (or knowledge).” return

[T]he six destinies manifest the qualities of dharmas which arises through conditioned co-arising. The two vehicles manifest emptiness. The bodhisattvas manifest conventional existence. The Buddhas manifest [the middle path of] the simultaneous identity of reality as empty of substantial Being yet conventionally existent.²²⁵ Therefore the realm of the Buddha is supreme.

225

Here Chih-i is showing a correspondence between the verse of the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā 24:18, on which the threefold truth is based, and the ten dharma realms. [Whatever is dependently co-arisen/That is explained to be emptiness./That, being a dependent designation,/Is itself the middle way.] return

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[T]he four evil destinies manifest evil [i.e., pain]. The realms of men and gods manifest good [i.e., pleasure]. The realms of the two vehicles manifest undefiled goodness [i.e., bliss]. The realm of bodhisattvas and Buddhas manifest goodness [bliss] which is neither defiled nor undefiled. Therefore the suchlikes of the Buddha are called most supreme.

If one examines the words of the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, the passage “May I attain the supreme reward”²²² clarifies that the reward of the Buddha realm is supreme. The reward of Buddhahood is already recognized as supreme; the appearances, nature and all the [other] nine suchlike characteristics [of the Buddha] are [also] supreme. The reason is that the appearances, nature, and so forth of those in the six destinies [from hell to heaven] manifest all the five types of passions and delusions.²²³

The appearances, nature, and so forth of those in the two vehicles manifest their destruction of four types of passions and delusions but still manifest ignorance. The appearances, nature, and so forth of the bodhisattvas manifest a gradual destruction of the five types of passions and delusions, but the appearance, nature, and so forth of the Buddha manifests universal wisdom,²²⁴ which is pure like space and not defiled by the five types of passions and delusions. Therefore the ten dharmas [of the suchlike characteristics] of the Buddha are most supreme.

222

From the second chapter “On Cunda” in the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra. See note 211. return

223

This compound is discussed above in note 47. return

224

Omniscience; sarvajñājñāna? return

[T]he appearance of those in the six destinies manifests the sufferings of saṃsāric existence. The appearance of those in the two vehicles manifest the bliss of nirvāṇa. The appearance of the Buddha realm manifests neither saṃsāra nor nirvāṇa. The Buddha realm is said to be most supreme because it consists of the middle path [which is] eternal, blissful, selfhood, and pure.

If one reaches the stage of subtle awakening, there are [either] nine or ten dharmas [of suchlike characteristics]. The reason is that the wisdom of the middle path causes rebirth to be lost. Since [in some stages of some Teachings] birth is not completely exhausted, there are differences among the stages concerning birth and extinction.²¹⁷

The stage of subtle awakening completes the process of losing further rebirth. Why then can one speak of retribution at this level? Therefore it is written, “Only the Buddha alone dwells in the Pure Land.”²¹⁸ “The passage through the ten bhūmi stages is finished²¹⁹ and one is equivalent to Great Awakening. [The Buddha] has no further rebirths in this saṃsāric world because he has exhausted all passions [kleśa]. His wisdom and virtue is already perfect so he has no more repetitive results. He no longer experiences rebirth in another physical body, therefore he has no retributive results. But from the perspective of [the Buddha’s] present life, one can speak of nine or ten [such-like characteristics].221

217

In this passage Chih-i is warily circumscribing the issue of whether or not one can speak of the Buddha having any retribution. The texts that Chih-i quotes make clear that one can speak it in the sense of the reward for his perfection of practice and attainment of enlightenment, and thus the Buddha also has ten suchlike characteristics. However, since the Buddha has severed all delusions and utterly destroyed all vestiges of ignorance, one cannot speak of any “retribution” for the Buddha in the sense of his being reborn in saṃsāra as a result of bad karma. In this sense the Buddha has only nine suchlike characteristics. Thus Chih-i discriminates between “retribution” and the “resultant reward” of Buddhahood. return

218

A continuation of the same passage in the Jên wang ching quoted above.  return

219

“Thirty lives are exhausted.” return

220

From the Jên wang ching, immediately preceding the above quotes. The context is describing the attainment of supreme Buddhahood after passing through the various bodhisattva stages. return

221

One can speak of the Buddha’s present life as a “reward” for his past virtuous deeds. return

[Does the Buddha experience retribution?] The realm of the Buddha has nine or ten suchlike characteristics [depending on the explanation]. Generally speaking, all [Buddhas] have [perfected] all practices in the [bodhisattva] stages [and thus should have no retribution and no further rebirth in this world]. Their virtuous merits are the causes [for their present state] and ignorance was their condition. If one discriminates the repetitive results and the retributive results, then all ten dharmas [i.e., all ten suchlike characteristics] are included [in the Buddha realm].

This [Lotus Sūtra] says, “[The Buddha] attains the resultant reward²⁰⁷ which is immeasurable, undefiled, and pure,”²⁰⁸ and “Having cultivated pure practices for a long time from within the doctrine of the Dharma King, today for the first time I have attained the resultant reward.”²⁰⁹ It also says, “That which is attained after cultivating practices for a long time.”²¹⁰ The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra says, “I now offer this food; may I attain the supreme reward.”²¹¹ The Jên wang ching says, “[Those on] the three [levels of] wise men and the ten [stages] of the sage²¹² abide in their resultant reward.”²¹³ The Mahāyāna Saṃgraha says that “the saṃsāric existence of conditioned co-arising is followed by [another] existence in saṃsāra.”²¹⁴

These texts all discuss the discriminative meaning of resultant retributions. “Resultant retribution” is identical to birth and extinction [or arising and perishing]. Why? If the aspect of ignorance is exhausted [by a Buddha], then one speaks of extinction. If the truth is made clear and gradually built up, then one speaks of the birth [of wisdom]. Also, when ignorance remains, then one can speak of birth [in another saṃsāric existence]. If any part of delusion remains, then one can speak of [its possible] extinction.

207

I have translated the two phrases and differently, as “retributive result” and “resultant reward” respectively, even though they are the same two characters. Since the word “retribution” has some negative connotation, it is better translated as “reward” in reference to the Buddha, as in the case of “reward-body” for saṃbhogakāya. return

208

Hurvitz, Lotus Sūtra, 247, translates the context as follows:

“Beings such as these/ Hearing of the great length of the Buddha’s life-span/ Shall gain incalculable, outflow-free/ Pure fruits and retributions.”

Hurvitz points out in a note that the translation here by Kumarajiva is very different from that of extant Sanskrit versions of the Lotus Sūtra. return

209

A verse from the chapter “On Faith and Understanding” in the Lotus Sūtra. In this passage Mahākāśyapa is explaining the meaning of the parable of the poor son. Hurvitz, Lotus Sūtra, 98, translates the context as follows: “Throughout the long night of time, we/Have kept the Buddha’s pure discipline/ But only this day/ Have we gained its fruit, its retribution./ In the midst of the dharmas of the Dharma King/ Long having cultivated brahman-conduct/ Now we have gained something without outflows/ A great unexcelled fruit.” return

210

From the last part of the chapter on “The Life-span of the Tathāgata.” Hurvitz, Lotus Sūtra, 244, translates the context as follows: “Such is the power of my knowledge/ The rays of my wisdom having an incalculable glow/ My life-span being of numberless kalpas/ Gained after cultivation of long practice.” return

211

This phrase is from the second chapter “On Cunda” in the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, where Cunda makes offerings to the Buddha and is promised the two rewards of supreme wisdom and nirvāṇa. return

212

The “three levels of wise men” refers to the three levels of the Ten Abodes, the Ten Stages of Practice, and the Ten Stages of Merit Transference. The “ten stages of the sage” refers to the ten bhūmi stages. return

213

The third chapter on the Jên wang ching, discusses the stages of the bodhisattva. return

214

Paramārtha’s translation of the Mahāyāna saṃgraha has “A saṃsāric existence of conditioned co-arising is called a crude multiple retribution.” In other words, a saṃsāric life, which is characterized by karmic causes and conditions, is necessarily followed by another rebirth in saṃsāra. return

The Ta chih tu lun [The Treatise on the Great Prajñāpāramitā] says, “One man plows, and another plants.”²¹⁵ To cultivate many practices is like planting seeds. Wisdom which destroys delusion is like plowing. This is the meaning of “to advance on the path and lose further rebirth”²¹⁶ The [first] forty-one stages all include ten dharmas [of suchlike characteristics].

215

I was unable to locate the source for this quote. Compare the Biblical passage “For here the saying holds true, ‘One sows and another reaps.’ I sent you to reap that for which you did not labor; others have labored, and you have entered into their labor” (John 4:37-38). return

216

In T’ien-t’ai philosophy, “advancing on the path” refers to the gradual awakening of the wisdom of the middle path in the Perfect Teachings from the first stage of the Ten Abodes to the final fruit of Buddhahood. “Losing further rebirth” refers to the severance of ignorance and thus deliverance from the saṃsāric world of transformations. return

The ten dharmas of the Buddha-realm are all discriminated with reference to the middle path.

The Vimalakīrtinirdeśa Sūtra says, “All sentient beings without exception have the mark of bodhiwisdom and do not need to attain it again.”¹⁹⁷ This [Buddha-nature as] the conditional cause [of Buddhahood]¹⁹⁸ is the Buddha’s “appearance.”

“Nature” is that which has its point of reference internally. The [Buddha’s] wisdom and vow is [inherently] existent and is never lost. This wisdom [of the inherent Buddha-nature] as the complete cause [of Buddhahood]¹⁹⁹ is the Buddha’s “nature.”

The inherently pure mind, [the Buddha-nature as] the direct cause [of Buddhahood]²⁰⁰ is the Buddha’s “essence.” These are the three “tracks” [of reality].²⁰¹

“Power”: the [Buddha’s] power is so-called because he surpasses śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas upon his first aspiration for enlightenment.

[The Buddha’s] activity is the performance of the Four Universal vows.²⁰²

[The Buddha’s] “cause” is the grand adornment of wisdom [Prajn͂āpāramitā].

[The Buddha’s] “conditions” are the grand adornment of virtues.²⁰³

[The Buddha’s] “result” is the repetitive result of the state of highest enlightenment in which each thought is integrated with the mind of great awakening.

[The Buddha’s] “retribution” is the fruit of Mahāparinirvāṇa. The retributive result is complete endowment with all concentrations [samādhi], meditative states, virtues, and the severance [of all passions and delusions].

“The beginning and end both the same” [for the Buddha] means that the threefold truth of appearance, nature [and so forth]²⁰⁴ is not different than the ultimate threefold truth. Therefore they are called “the same.” “The sameness of the truth of emptiness” means that inherently the suchness of sentient beings and the suchness of the Buddha is the same.²⁰⁵ The “sameness of the mundane truth [of conventional existence]” means that when sentient beings have not yet aroused aspiration for enlightenment, the Buddha has already prophesied their Buddhahood. The Buddha has already attained enlightenment so he preaches concerning his deeds in his previous lives. Thus the mutual interexistence of the beginning and end is [the meaning on the sameness of conventional existence. The “sameness of the middle” means that ordinary men and sages are all [partaking in the same] aspects of reality.

197

A paraphrase from Vimalakirti’s comments to Maitreya in the third chapter of the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa Sūtra. Boin translates the context as follows: “The suchness of all beings [sarvasattvatathatā], the suchness of all dharmas, the suchness of all the holy ones, this is also your own suchness, O Maitreya … suchness is not constituted of duality, is not constituted of multiplicity. Honourable Maitreya, the instant that you reach supreme and perfect enlightenment, at that instant, all beings also will reach that same enlightenment. And why? Because that enlightenment [bodhi] is already acquired [anubuddha] by all beings… .” return

198

The first of the three aspects of Buddha-nature. return

199

The second of the three aspects of Buddha-nature. return

200

The third of the three aspects of Buddha-nature. return

201

The three aspects of reality, which are called “tracks” because they are the order, rule, law, or model of things as they truly are. The three are parallel to the three aspects of Buddha-nature. They are:

1. “the true nature of reality.” The integrated, non-illusory, non-differentiated aspect of reality. This corresponds to the objective world and to the Buddha-nature as the direct cause of Buddhahood. Buddhahood is inherent in all sentient beings since they all participate in the true nature of reality as simultaneously empty of substantial Being yet conventionally existent.
2. “the illumination of wisdom.” The function of wisdom in destroying delusions and manifesting the true nature of reality. It corresponds to the aspect of Buddha-nature as the “complete cause” of Buddhahood, since the wisdom to realize Buddhahood is inherent in all sentient beings.
3. “the perfection of one’s disposition.” The practice undertaken and which brings to perfection the inherent Buddha’s wisdom, It corresponds to the aspect of Buddha-nature as practice, the conditional causes which bring to perfection the inherent Buddha-wisdom.

 return

202

The four Mahāyāna vows are: although the of sentient beings is unlimited, I vow to save them all; although passions are innumerable, I vow to sever them all; although doctrines are inexhaustible, I vow to know them all; although the way to Buddhahood is supreme, I vow to perfect it. It appears that Chih-i was the first to formulate these four “universal” bodhisattva vows. See Chappell, Tien-t’ai Buddhism, 103. return

203

The remaining five pāramitā of giving, precepts, patience, diligence, and meditation. return

204

The three ways of reading “suchlike appearance” and so forth. return

205

Since they are all empty of substantial Being. return

206

The ten dharma realms and all of existence is interpenetrating and mutually interdependent. return

Next I will discuss the ten dharmas of the realms of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas from the perspective of true non-defilement [anāsrava]. Their “appearance” is that of nirvāṇa. Their “nature” is neither good nor evil. Their “essence” is the fivefold Dharma Body.¹⁸¹ Their “power” is the ability to appear and move about [in this triple world of suffering]; they have the potential capability of attaining the Path. Their “activity” is to strive diligently. Their “causes” are undefiled, correct wisdom. Their “conditions” are basic practice¹⁸² which is conducive to [advancing on] the Path. Their “results” are fourfold.¹⁸³

[According to Hinayāna teachings, there is no retribution for śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas, for three reasons.] First, since śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas are without further birth, they have no retribution. The reason is that when the [understanding of the] real is aroused, this is the [ultimate] result and there is no need to discuss any further retributions. Second, if undefiled dharmas arise as the retribution for repetitive causes, then repetitive results will be attained. Since the lack of further birth from having no defilements [a characteristic of arhats] is not a condition wherein one is shackled by further birth, there is no later retribution. Third, the first three [i.e., stream-winners, once-returners, and those who will return no more] have retribution because they have remaining [mistaken] conceptions which have not been severed. Therefore the stream-winners¹⁸⁴, once-returners, or those reborn in the realm of form, do not share in the [lack of] retribution [gained from total] non-defilement. Therefore [according to Hinayāna teachings] these beings have nine and not ten [suchlike characteristics].

According to Mahāyāna doctrine, even this [so-called] non-defilement [of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas] contains some defilement. The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra says, “The adornment of virtue” means being conditioned and defiled.¹⁸⁵ This refers to the śrāvakas. They are not completely undefiled. They have not gotten rid of all delusions and they still experience rebirth in the world of transmigrations. If complete non-defilement is the cause and ignorance the condition, then one is reborn in the realm of transformations. ¹⁸⁶ Therefore they have retributions.¹⁸⁷

180

“White” (Sukla-dharma). return

181

The five virtues attained by one who is at the stage where he has nothing more to learn (aśaikṣa) the keeping of the precepts, concentration (samādhi), wisdom, liberation, and the knowledge and insight of liberation. In T’ien-t’ai doctrine this is recognized as the highest level of attainment by those of the Hinayāna. return

182

The “practice of practice.” This compound is used in contrast to the “practice of wisdom.” In the Tz’u ti ch’an min, an earlier work of Chih-i, he defines these terms as follows: “There are two types of practice. The first is the practice of wisdom, and the second is the practice of practice. . . . The practice of practice is so called because through this practice one conquers and destroys all passions. The second practice of wisdom consists of severing illusions concerning reality through correct contemplation of the four noble truths, twelvefold conditioned co-arising, and true emptiness…” return

183

The four results of stream-winner, once-returner, one who will return to this saṃsāric existence no more, and the arhat. return

184

One with seven more rebirths. return

185

This refers to the passage in the chapter on the Bodhisattva Lion’s Roar where the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra distinguishes between two kinds of adornment, that of wisdom and virtues. The passage reads: “There are two kinds of adornments. First, that of wisdom, and second, that of virtue. If there is a bodhisattva who is endowed with these two adornments, he will know the Buddha-nature. … The adornment of wisdom refers to (the content of a bodhisattva’s attainment from) the first to the tenth bodhisattva stage (bhūmi). The adornment of virtue refers to the pāramitā from that of charity to prajña-wisdom, but does not include Prajn͂āpāramitā. The adornment of wisdom is that of all Buddhas and bodhisattvas. The adornment of virtues is that of śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and the bodhisattvas of (the stage of) the ninth Abode. . . . The adornment of virtue is conditioned, defiled, has existence, has resultant retribution, has obstructions, and is not eternal. It is a dharma of ordinary men. The adornment of wisdom is unconditioned, undefiled (anāsrava), does not exist, has no resultant retribution, is unobstructed, and is eternal.” return

186

This position and terminology is reminiscent of, and probably based on, the Śrimālādevi Sūtra which, in the chapter on ekayāna, points out that arhats and pratyekabuddhas have not put an end to their rebirths, not completely cultivated all virtues, have not accomplished what should be accomplished, and have not completely exhausted the delusions which need to be exhausted. It then posits two kinds of death and rebirth: first, the ordinary death (and rebirth) of people in saṃsāra, and second the death (and rebirth) which is a transformation beyond conceptual thought , the undefiled rebirth of bodhisattvas in this world in order to save sentient. The Śrimālādevi Sūtra continues by making a distinction between latent and active passions. The śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas sever the active passions, but they still have not severed the latent defilements of fundamental ignorance. return

187

See Hurvitz, Chih-i, 297-299, for a different interpretation and lengthy discussion of this section. return