Yesterday I completed reprinting quotes from Walpola Sri Rahula’s What The Buddha Taught. A trained Buddhist monk in Sri Lanka, the Rev. Dr. Rahula focused entirely on what is taught in his country. Today, I jump to the other extreme, with The Essestials of Buddhist Philosophy by Juniro Takakusu, a book completely devoted to the Buddhism of 20th century Japan.

Takakusu, 1886-1945, explains the rationale for this Japanese perspective in his Introduction:

A discourse on Buddhist Philosophy is usually begun with the philosophy of Indian Buddhism, and in this respect it is important to trace the development of Buddhist thought in India where it thrived for 1500 years. It should be remembered, however, that before Buddhism declined in India in the eleventh century, its various developments had already spread far into other countries. Hinayana Buddhism, or the Small Vehicle, which emphasizes individual salvation, continued in Ceylon, Burma, Siam and Cambodia. Mystic or esoteric Buddhism developed as Lamaism in Tibet. Mahayana Buddhism, or the Great Vehicle, which emphasizes universal salvation, grew in China where great strides in Buddhist studies were made and the different thoughts in Mahayana schools were systematized.

In Japan, however, the whole of Buddhism has been preserved — every doctrine of both the Hinayana and Mahayana schools. Although Hinayana Buddhism does not now exist in Japan as an active faith, its doctrines are still being studied there by Buddhist scholars. Mikkyō, which we may designate as the Esoteric Doctrine or Mysticism, is fully represented in Japan by Tendai mysticism and Tōji mysticism. The point which Japanese mysticism may be proud of is that it does not contain any vulgar elements, as does its counterpart in other countries, but stands on a firm philosophical basis.

The schools which were best developed in China are Hua-yen (Kegon, the ‘Wreath’ School) and T’ien-t’ai (Tendai, the ‘Lotus’ School). When the Ch’an (Zen) School is added to these two, the trio represents the highest peak of Buddhism’s development. These three flourished in China for a while and then passed away, but in Japan all three are still alive in the people’s faiths as well as in academic studies.

A rather novel form of Buddhism is the Amita-pietism. It is found to some extent in China, Tibet, Nepal, Mongolia, Manchuria and Annam; but it flourishes most in Japan, where it is followed by more than half of the population.

I believe, therefore, that the only way to exhibit the entire Buddhist philosophy in all its different schools is to give a resume of Buddhism in Japan. It is in Japan that the entire Buddhist literature, the Tripitaka, is preserved and studied. …

In the present study of Buddhist philosophy the subject will not be presented in its historical sequence but in an ideological sequence. This ideological sequence does not mean a sequence in the development of ideas; it is rather the systematization of the different schools of thought for the purpose of easier approach.

As a result of this Japanese focus, Takakusu’s explanation of Buddhism focuses on six general principles common especially to all schools of Mahayana:

1. The Principle of Causation
2. The Principle of Indeterminism of the Differentiated
3. The Principle of Reciprocal Identification
4. The Principle of True Reality
5. The Principle of Totality
6. The Principle of Perfect Freedom

In discussing Reciprocal Identification, Takakusu offers his explanation of the major difference between the Hinayana and Mahayana.

Hinayana Buddhism is generally satisfied with analysis and is rarely inclined to synthesis. The Mahayana, on the other hand, is generally much inclined to the reciprocal identification of two conflicting ideas. If one party adheres to his own idea while the other party insists on his own, a separation will be the natural result. This is what happens in the Hinayana. The Mahayana teaches that one should put one’s own idea aside for a moment and identify one’s own position with that of the other party, thus mutually synthesizing the opposed positions. Then both parties will find themselves perfectly united. This is really a process of self-denial which is minutely taught in the dialectic method of the School of Negativism (Sunyata, Void).

The word for ‘reciprocal identification’ is more literally ‘mutual’ and ‘regarding,’ that is, ‘mutually viewing from each other’s point, ‘mutual identification,’ which is as much as to say an ‘exchange of views.’ It is indispensable to bring about a reconciliation of conflicting opinions or to effect a syncretism among opposing speculative systems. This trend of thought, in fact, served greatly to restore the original idea of tolerance which was revealed in the Buddha’s teaching but was almost entirely lost in the various schools of Hinayana which resulted from differences of opinion.

The material for the book was originally delivered in a series of lectures during 1938-39 at the University of Hawaii, where Takakusu was a visiting professor.

The pre-World War II context is clear in Takakusu’s discussion of the Aryan race in India:

Against the asserted superiority of the Aryan race and the appellation of anarya (non-Aryan) given to the aborigines or some earlier immigrants [in India], the Buddha often argued that the word ‘Arya’ meant ‘noble’ and we ought not call a race noble or ignoble for there will be some ignoble persons among the so-called arya and at the same time there will be some noble persons among the so-called anarya. When we say noble or ignoble we should be speaking of an individual and not of a race as a whole. It is a question of knowledge or wisdom but not of birth or caste. Thus the object of the Buddha was to create a noble personage (arya-pudgala)—in the sense of a noble life.

Before returning to Japan, Takakusu gave the university permission to publish this book. The first edition was published in 1947. The third edition, which is the one I read, was published in 1956.

Tomorrow: Takakusu’s Claim of Violent Nichirenism

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